PROCESSING OF DATA (Unit3)

 

PROCESSING OF DATA

 Meaning of Processing of Data 

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. 

The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.

  

Importance of Data Processing 

Checks the data for Accuracy 

Provides better understanding - it transforms the data to information by classification, sorting, combination and reporting.

Puts into suitable form.

Helps in decision making

Makes data transferable 

Readability and take less time.

  

 

PROCESSING OF DATA

 

Processing Operations or Data processing refers to the process of converting data from one format to another. It transforms plain data into valuable information and information into data. Data processing services take the raw data and process it accordingly to produce sensible information. The various applications of data processing include converting raw data into useful information that can be used further for business processes. Processing operations of data involves the following steps:

 

1) Editing,

2) Coding,

3) Classification, and

4) Tabulation.

 

  

 

EDITING OF DATA

 

By editing one tries to eliminate the errors or points of confusion, there is no missing values, entries are readable, accurate and uniform.

Stages in Editing  

1. Field editing

2. Central Office Editing

 

 

CODING OF DATA

In research methodology, coding is a stage in data processing where qualitative data is labeled with descriptive keywords or phrases to help identify and categorize related content.

It involves assigning number or symbols to answers so that responses can be grouped a limited number of classes or categories.

 This process facilitates the organization and analysis of qualitative data, enabling researchers to extract themes, patterns, and relationships. 

One purpose of coding is to transform the data into a form suitable for computer-aided analysis

 

 

Role of Coding in Research Process 

Data Reduction: When researchers collect vast amounts of data, coding helps condense and summarize it. This reduction makes it feasible to analyze large datasets effectively.

Data Organization: Coding provides a systematic way to categorize and group similar pieces of information together, making it easier to manage and analyze the data.

Pattern Recognition: Coding allows researchers to identify patterns, trends, and relationships within the data that might not be immediately apparent when working with raw data.

Interpretation and Analysis: Coded data serves as the foundation for statistical analysis and hypothesis testing. Researchers can run statistical tests on coded data to draw meaningful conclusions.

Comparative Analysis: By coding data consistently, researchers can compare and contrast information across different cases or groups, aiding in the generation of insights and theories.

 

Examples of Data Coding in Research

1. Qualitative Research

In qualitative research, data coding is often used to categorize and analyze textual or narrative data. For instance, imagine a study on customer feedback about a new product.

 

Researchers could code customer comments into categories such as “product quality,” “customer service,” “pricing,” and “delivery.” Each comment would be assigned one or more of these codes based on the main topic it addresses.

 

2. Survey Research

In survey research, coding can involve assigning numerical values to responses on a Likert scale. For example, in a survey about job satisfaction, the responses “strongly agree” might be coded as 5, “agree” as 4, “neutral” as 3, “disagree” as 2, and “strongly disagree” as 1. These codes enable quantitative analysis of survey data.

 

3. Content Analysis

Content analysis often involves coding textual or visual content, such as news articles or social media posts, into predefined categories.

 

For instance, in a content analysis of news articles about climate change, researchers could code articles as “supportive of climate action,” “neutral,” or “skeptical of climate change.” This coding allows researchers to assess the prevalence of different perspectives in the media.

 

4. Historical Research

Even in historical research, data coding can be useful. Historians might code historical documents based on themes, time periods, or key events. This enables them to identify patterns and trends across historical records and gain new insights into the past. 

 

 

 

CLASSIFICATION

 

Classification is the process of arranging data in groups or classes based on common characteristics. 

(a) Classification according to attributes also called statistics of attributes. 

It can be descriptive such as: literary, honesty etc. They are qualitative - Only their presence or absence can be noticed.

It can be numeric such as-weight, height, income etc. 

Classification can be simple classification where one attribute is considered and the the universe is divided into two, one processing the attribute and the other without. 

Classification can be manifold classification where two or more attributes are considered simultaneously. 

(b) Classification according to class intervals also called-. statistics of variables. - 

Entire data is divided into number of groups or class or Class-Intervals. 

Each group of class interval-has upper limit as well as a lower limit known an Class Limitd 

The difference between the two class limits is called class magnitude.

 The no. of items which fall in a given class is called frequency.

 All classes with their respective frequencies together are called group frequency distribution or frequency distribution. 

* How many classes should be there? 

5 10 15 classes

 

* what should be their magnitude? 

Multiples of 2, 5, 10 are generally preferred.  

Intervals may be expressed as under 500 or 1001& over

 

How to choose the class limits? 

The midpoint of a Class-Interval and the actual average of items of that class interval should he as close as possible.

 

Exclusive type class - interval  

10-20. Read as 10 and under 20

20-30 Read as 20 and under 30.

 

Inclusive type class-interval

11-20

21-30 etc.

 

Primary Data & Secondary Data (Unit 3)

 

Primary Data & Secondary Data

 Two types of Data & Methods of Collecting it.

In addition to deciding who should supply his marketing research needs the manager will also want to contribute to the decision as to what type of data is most appropriate, i.e. primary data or secondary data

1.     Secondary data

The term 'secondary data relates to data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of a given research study.

Characteristics of secondary data (Advantages)

• Secondary data may be sufficient to solve the problem. On occasion it happens that adequate data may be available to the extent that primary data collection unnecessary.
• Data collection costs are substantially lower for secondary data in comparison to primary data. A thorough search of secondary sources can be completed at a fraction of the cost incurred in even a modest primary data collection exercise.
• The time involved in searching secondary sources is far less than that needed to complete primary data collection. A systematic search of secondary sources can be completed in a fraction of the time it takes to complete primary data collection.
• Secondary sources of information can yield more accurate data than that obtained through primary research. This is not always true but where a government or international agency has undertaken a large scale survey, or even a census, this is likely to yield far more accurate results than independent surveys when these are based on relatively small sample sizes.
• Secondary data helps define the research problem and to formulate hypotheses. The assembly and analysis of secondary data almost invariably improves the understanding of the marketing problem, the various lines of inquiry the study could take and the alternative course of action which might be pursued.
• Secondary sources help define the population. Secondary data can be extremely useful both in defining the population and in structuring the sample to be taken. For instance, government statistics on a countries' agriculture will help decide how to stratify a sample and, once sample estimates have been calculated, these can be used to project those estimates from the sample to the population.

Whilst the benefits of secondary sources are considerable, their shortcomings have to be acknowledged. The main problems may be categorised as follows:

Problems with secondary sources (Disadvantages)

Definitions: The researcher has to be careful, when making use of secondary data, with regard to the definitions used by those responsible for its preparation. 

Measurement error: 

Source bias: Researchers have to be aware of vested interests when they consult secondary sources. 

Reliability: The reliability of published statistics may vary over time

 

Time scale: Published sources may be out-of-date at the time the researcher wants to make use of the statistics.

Sources of information

Secondary sources of information may be divided into two categories; internal sources and external sources.

1. Internal sources of information

All organisations collect information in the course of their everyday operations. Orders are received and delivered, costs are recorded, sales personnel submit visit reports, invoices are sent out, returned goods are recorded and so. 

For example, consider how much information can be obtained from sales invoices:

• sales by territory
• sales by customer type
• average size of order by customer
• customer type, geographical area
• average sales by sales person
• sales by pack size and pack type.

2. External sources of secondary information

The main external sources of secondary data are (1) government departments (2) trade associations (3) domestic and international commercial information services (4) national and international development organisations institutions.

Government Statistics: Federal, state and local government departments usually publish a wide range of statistics. These may include all or some of the following:-

• population censuses
• social surveys, family expenditure surveys
• import/export statistics
• production statistics
• agricultural statistics

Trade Associations: Trade Associations differ widely in the extent of their data collection and information dissemination activities. However, it is worth checking with them to determine what they do publish. At the very least one would normally expect that they would produce a trade directory and, perhaps, a yearbook. Chambers of commerce could also prove useful as an information source.

Commercial Services: Published market research report and other publications are available from a wide range of organisations who charge for their information. Typically, marketing people are interested in media statistics and consumer information which has been obtained from large scale consumer or farmer panels. The commercial organisation funds the collection of the data, which is wide ranging in its content, and hopes to profit from selling this data to interested parties.

National and International Institutions: Bank economic reviews, University research reports, journals and articles are all useful sources to contact. International agencies such as World Bank, FAO, UNDP, ITC and ILO produce a plethora of secondary data which can prove extremely useful to the marketing researcher.

2.     Primary research / Primary Data

Primary research is that which has been specifically designed to address particular marketing problems or questions. Perhaps the approach most readily associated with marketing research is the survey but as we are about to see this is but one, and not invariably the most appropriate, approach. The principal approaches to primary marketing research are:

• Survey research
• Qualitative research
• Observation
• Experimentation
• Continuous research

Survey research: Surveys are characterised by a relatively large number of respondents and the desire to project the results obtained from a sample to a population. If the sample is drawn using a probabilistic method then we can place confidence levels on the inferences we make about the population. Where a non-probabilistic method is used we cannot say how certain or uncertain we are about our inferences. Nonetheless if the sample is reasonably large, and comprised of a good cross-section of the target population, then marketing researchers tend to assume that the sample results are representative of the population. The main forms which surveys take are depicted in figure 11.4.

 Qualitative research: In situations where the researcher is primarily interested in why people thing and/or behave in a particular way rather than in being able to quantify things, then qualitative research methods are likely to be employed. Qualitative methods have at least four distinguishing characteristics:

• Small numbers of respondents. The idea is to devote a considerable amount of time on each interview to get to the heart of a matter.
• Unstructured question formats. That is, the questions are not completely predetermined and the interviewer is free to probe for all details and underlying feelings.
• Indirect measurement of respondents' feelings and beliefs. Respondents provide descriptive information about their thought and feelings. These are not easily projected to the population.
• Direct observation. The interviewer not only records answers but observes how questions affect interviewees. Hesitant answers, agitation, smiling, sweating, calmness, boredom etc. are all observable and all tell us something about the individuals state of mind.

Three commonly employed qualitative marketing research methods are projective techniques, focus groups and depth interviews.

 Focus groups: Each focus group generally involves six to eight people who meet with a moderator for a discussion. The discussion is focused, by the moderator on a particular topic. Typically, a group session will last one to two hours. The discussion is free ranging with the moderator intervening only periodically to stimulate the discussion in a particular direction. The moderator uses a discussion guide rather than a questionnaire. This guide is simply an agenda of the topics which the group should cover. Thus, the focus of the discussion, at any point in time, is subtly controlled by the researcher (hence the term moderator). Participants in the groups are chosen on the basis that they belong to the target market.

Any number of focus groups may be held in connection with a particular marketing problem but the results are not strictly projectable to the population since the selection of participants is in no way probabilistic.

Depth interviews: Depth interviews are like lengthy psychoanalytic sessions between a single respondent and a highly skilled interviewer. The idea is to get to the deep, hidden underlying attitudes and feelings the respondent has towards a product, service, company or problems which a product is trying to solve.

Depth interviews are of most value where a study deals with (1) a confidential, emotionally charged or embarrassing matter; (2) a behaviour for which socially acceptable norms exist and the need to conform in group discussions influences responses; (3) a complex behavioural or decision-making process that requires a detailed idiosyncratic, step-by-step description; and (4) when group interviews are difficult to schedule for the target population.

Projective techniques: On occasion, the interests of the research are best served by obtaining information on respondents' beliefs and feelings indirectly. Projective techniques presume that respondents cannot or will not communicate their feelings and beliefs directly. Instead, respondents are encouraged to respond indirectly by projecting their own feelings and beliefs into the situation as they interpret the behaviour of others. The most common projective techniques are:-

Thematic apperception tests	Respondents are presented with a series of pictures or cartoons in which consumers and products are featured. Participants are asked to study the situation depicted and to comment on what is happening or what might happen next. In this way, respondents are encouraged to project their own feelings and beliefs onto the situation portrayed in the pictures or cartoons. The term thematic apperception test is used because themes (thematic) are elicited based on the perceptual-interpretive (apperception) use of pictures and cartoons.
Word association	Respondents are presented with a series of words, one at a time, and asked to indicate what word comes immediately to mind. The respondent's response and time to respond are recorded. Elapsed time and associations are the key measures. Word association is commonly used in the testing of brand names.
Sentence completion	Sentence completion tests are similar to word association. Respondents are asked to conclude a number of incomplete sentences with the first word or phrase that comes to mind. Responses are then analysed for content and meaning.
Scenario/story completion	Respondents are asked to complete the end of a story or supply the motive for why one or more actors in a story behaved as they did.
Third person/role playing	Respondents are presented with a visual or verbal situation in which they are asked to relate the feelings and beliefs of a third person - for example, a friend, neighbour, another farmer or ‘typical’ person - to the situation, rather than to directly express their own feeling/beliefs about the situation. In this way the individual reveals his/her own inner most feelings, attitudes and motives.

As was said earlier, qualitative research methods are, best employed where the task is to address ‘why’ questions. However, the results of qualitative research are rarely projectable to the population at large. Moreover, they must be carried out by interviewers trained in psychology and/or sociology.

Observation: Methods of data collection involving directly or indirect, human or mechanical measurement of behaviour, are termed observational methods. These can be particularly useful in situations where the respondent is either unable or unwilling to report past behaviour, or in cross-cultural research where it is possible that imperfect translation of the questions can occur. Observation methods are also called naturalistic inquiries because, in their purest form, such studies demand a natural setting. This is because behaviour takes its meaning as much from their context as they do from themselves⁴. Examples of observation methods include pantry and dustbin audits, and physiological measurements.

Questionnaire in Business Research (Unit 2)

 Types of Questionnaire 

Questionnaire Studies Classified by Structure & Disguise

Three bases of classifying questionnaire are

1. The degree to which questions are formalized

2. The disguise or lack of disguise of the objectives of questionnaire.

3. The communication method used.

 

A structured questionnaire is a survey tool that uses a standardized set of questions with predefined answers or answer options. These questions are asked in a specific order, ensuring consistency and ease of analysis. This type of questionnaire is often used for quantitative research and aims to collect quantifiable data. 

EXAMPLE: multiple-choice questions, Likert scales, dichotomous questions (yes/no).

 

An unstructured questionnaire is a type of survey or interview instrument that uses open-ended questions, allowing respondents to provide detailed, free-form answers without being limited by predefined response options. This approach is primarily used to gather qualitative data, exploring opinions, experiences, and perspectives in depth. 

EXAMPLE: Describe your experience using our product."

 

A disguised questionnaire is one where the true purpose of the survey is concealed from the respondent, either through the wording of questions or the overall structure of the questionnaire. This is done to encourage more honest and unbiased responses, especially when dealing with sensitive topics or when respondents might be reluctant to answer directly. 

 

A "non-disguised questionnaire" is one where the purpose of the questions and the study are openly and directly stated, rather than being hidden or disguised. 

 

 

• Using the first two bases of classifications four types of studies can be distinguished.

 

Structured, Non disguised Questioning

 -The information is reliable.

-Can be handled by telephone, mail or personal interview 

 

Limitations:

inability to furnish information,

unwillingness to furnish it,

may stimulate incorrect or misleading answers.

 

Non structured, Non disguised Questioning

 • Many individuals may not report motives that might be considered base or socially unacceptable. (Mercedes may he bought to make neighbours envious but may the slated lo be economical in the long run.)

• Develop depth interview - interviewer attempts to get respondents to talk freely.

-Probing to seek more information.

-Interviewer can adjust questions -

 

Limitations:

Take longer time,  

Too much reliance on the judgement of interviewer,

Difficult to compare results,

Difficult to interpret.

 

-Non Structured, Disguised Questioning

Many people are either unwilling or unable to give accurate reports.

Disguised methods are designed so that respondents do not know the objective of study.

 

Projective Techniques are methods using the theory of projection. The technique is that all individuals, in describing a situation gives a mixture of their own attitudes, beliefs, feelings & motivations.

Projective techniques may be: word association, sentence completion, storytelling.

Advantage: ability to uncover subconscious and socially unacceptable attitudes & motives.

 

Disadvantage: Cost, time and securing competent field workers.

 

Structured Disguised Questioning

Which of the following eat hot cereals: farmers, movie actors, doctors?

Respondents said doctors eat a lot of it and movie actors very little of it.

The answer shows that for respondents hot cereal is healthy but not glamorous.

 

Questionnaire Studies classified by Methods of Communication

Telephone: 

Mail: 

Personal interview at Shopping Center

Personal interview at home

Questionnaire Construction Procedure

 (Process of Questionnaire Designing)

1  Determine which information in wanted

 

Questionnaire serves two purposes - translate research objectives to questions and motivate respondents to answer them.

A specific statement of the information needed must be made.

For eg. for soap -(which age group, sex, income group. Geographical area, city size)

 

2  Determine the Type of Questionnaire to use

Questionnaire can be used by personal interview, mail on telephone. The choice depends on type of information, type of respondents.

Choice of questions, the way they are asked and the sequence in which they are asked depend on the type of questions.

 

3  Determine the Content of Individual questions

* Is the question necessary?

Strong tendency to add extra interesting questions; extra questions add to the cost, decrease cooperation of respondents. Turn to objectives of study when in doubt.

 

* Does the respondent have the information requested? 

Do they understand the question? They may answer even if they do not understand.

Wrong answers may come as a result of confusion rather than dishonesty 

Is the point within respondents' experience? 

Can the respondent remember the information?

Is the point within respondents experience?

Memory is influenced by -

1. The importance of the event.

2.The individual being asked to remember 

3.The length of time since the event.

4. The stimulus given to the individuals memory. 

* Will the respondent have to do a lot of work to get the information.

 * Will respondent give the information?

Even though they may know the answer, respondents may not answer the questions.

They are unable to phrase the answer or they do not want to answer.

 * Sometimes several questions are needed to make a point clear.

 

 

4  Determine The Type of Questions 

- Open questions - to introduce the subject.

- Multiple Choice Questions 

- Dichotomous 

 

 

5  Decide On the Wordings of Questions.

·         Define the issue- Each question must be clear on – who, where, when,  why, what and how.

·         Should question be subjective or objective?

Do you think Ford is better than Suzuki? (subjective)

Is Ford car better than Suzuki? (objective)

·         Positive or negative statement?

·         Use simple words

·         Avoid ambiguous questions

·         Avoid Leading questions-

·         Cushion questions that may seem unreasonable to the rspodant.

 

 

6  Decide on Question Sequence

·         Opening questions should win Respondents interest.

·         Place difficult questions in the body of questionnaire

·         Consider influence of questions on succeeding questions.

·         Arrange questions in logical order

·         Mail questionnaire should sell themselves.

 

7  Decide on Layout and Reproduction

·         Securing acceptance of the questionnaire – appearance, printing, paper quality, spacing, positioning of questions

·         Ease of control- in editing, tabulating.

·         Ease of handling- postcard shape/ booklet

·           

8  Pretest

Pretest are done by personal interview.

·         Why they answered don’t know?

·         Wording appropriate or not

·         Some questions may be eliminated or added.

·         The point where they get bored

·         Sequence

9  Revision & Final Draft

Prepare final questionnaire after pretesting.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Questionnaire Method

+ Advantages of Questionnaire Method

 

Versatilily:

Almost every problem of MR. can be approached from the questionnaire standpoint.

* Many problems can be studied only by questioning - Knowledge, opinions, motivations & intentions are not -open to observation 

* It is not feasible to observe personal activities.

 

Speed & Cost:

* It is cheaper & faster than observing

* Some events that take place over a period of time. g. no. of trips to the super market in a week can't be observed while interviewer can proceed from one interview to another.

 

+ Disadvantages of Questionnaire Method.

 

* Unwillingness of Respondents to provide information.

interviewer is unknown

subject may be of no interest.

 potential respondent may refuse to give time.

respondent may not answer specific questions.

when sent through mails, the percentage which is not returned may exceed 90%

 

* Inability of Respondent to provide information

·         Many emotions and motivations are largely subconscious.

·         Many products are bought without any conscious array of reasons for and against.

·         Respondents unable to remember the fact desired.

 Aided recall techniques may be used eg. if the person remembers a particular ad. (Aides may cause respondents to think they have seen or heard even if they have not. 

Answers are sometimes honest mistakes and at other times are made to impress the interviewer.

 

* Influence of Questioning Process:

The situation in which a person is questioned, respondent may furnish reports quite different from the fact.

 If the true answer is embarrassing or damaging some respondents may manufacture answer. Respondent may modify answers to certain questions eg. income/age.

 Often respondents attempt to give answers that they think will please the interviewer.